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Exploring The History of Political Parties

📜 Introduction

When Americans think of political parties today, the Democrats and Republicans dominate the conversation. But these two parties didn’t always represent what they do now. In fact, both have undergone massive ideological transformations over the past two centuries. To truly understand the landscape of American politics, we need to dig into the historical evolution of political parties—how they started, why they changed, and what that means today.

⚖️ The First Parties: Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans (1790s–1820s)

The United States didn’t start with political parties—but it didn’t take long for them to form.
Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, supported a strong central government, industrial development, and close ties with Britain.

Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, favored agrarianism, state sovereignty, and a limited federal government.

Key Issues:

National Bank (Federalists = yes; Jeffersonians = no)
Foreign alliances (Federalists = pro-Britain; Jeffersonians = pro-France)
Economic priorities (Federalists = manufacturing; Jeffersonians = farming)

By the 1820s, the Federalist Party collapsed, and the “Era of Good Feelings” began—a brief period where the Democratic-Republicans dominated unopposed.

🐘 The Birth of Democrats and Whigs (1828–1850s)

As internal divisions grew within the Democratic-Republicans, a new party emerged under Andrew Jackson—the Democratic Party.

Democrats became the party of the “common man”, anti-bank, anti-elite, and pro-slavery (especially in the South).

In opposition, the Whig Party formed, rallying support from northern industrialists, bankers, and reformers.

Ideological Contrast:

Democrats: Anti-central bank, pro-expansion, states’ rights, agrarianism
Whigs: Pro-industry, pro-bank, cautious about expansion, supported tariffs

⚠️ Collapse of the Whigs and the Rise of the Republican Party (1850s–1860s)

The Whigs collapsed under the weight of internal disagreements over slavery. This opened the door for a brand-new coalition: The Republican Party, formed in 1854.

Made up of former Whigs, anti-slavery Democrats, and abolitionists
Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican president in 1860
Republicans were anti-slavery, pro-business, and pro-federal power

This era redefined party lines around slavery and sectionalism more than traditional economic issues.

🧨 Post-Civil War Shifts: Reconstruction and Industrial Capitalism (1860s–1900) After the Civil War:

Republicans became the party of the North, industry, tariffs, and Reconstruction

Democrats entrenched themselves in the South, becoming defenders of white supremacy, segregation, and states’ rights

This era saw Republicans push civil rights for Black Americans, while Southern Democrats became associated with the Jim Crow system.

However, by the end of the 1800s, both parties were heavily influenced by big business, with populist movements challenging them from the outside.

🔁 The Progressive Era and Realignment (1900–1932)

Both parties experienced internal shifts during the early 20th century.

Progressives in both parties pushed for anti-trust laws, women’s suffrage, labor rights, and government regulation of the economy.

Theodore Roosevelt, a Republican, became a reform icon but later split to form the Progressive “Bull Moose” Party in 1912.

Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, adopted many progressive reforms—but also enforced racial segregation in federal offices.

The ideological lines began to blur, but major transformation was on the horizon.

🌐 The New Deal Coalition and Democratic Dominance (1932–1968)

The Great Depression was a political earthquake. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal reshaped the Democratic Party:

Became the party of labor unions, working-class whites, African Americans, and immigrants
E

mbraced government intervention in the economy: Social Security, job programs, and banking regulations

Meanwhile, Republicans became the party of fiscal conservatism, business interests, and limited government.

This realignment set the stage for a Democratic-dominated era, with a broad coalition that lasted for decades.

🔄 Civil Rights and the Southern Strategy (1960s–1980s)

The 1960s were a turning point.

Democrats (under LBJ) passed the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act

This alienated many Southern whites, who began shifting toward the Republican Party

Enter the Southern Strategy—a GOP approach to appeal to disaffected white voters through coded language around “law and order,” states’ rights, and opposition to forced busing.

By the 1980s:

Republicans: Became dominant in the South, embraced neoliberal economics, evangelical Christianity, and anti-communism

Democrats: Continued support for social welfare but began embracing market-friendly and centrist policies under figures like Bill Clinton

📉 21st Century: Populism, Polarization, and Party Fluidity

In recent decades, both parties have undergone more ideological shifts:

Democrats:

Increasingly progressive on issues like healthcare, climate, and social justice

Tensions between centrists (Biden, Clinton) and progressives (Sanders, AOC)

Republicans:

Shifted toward populism, nationalism, and anti-globalism under Donald Trump

More skeptical of institutions, immigration, and multilateralism

Today’s Dynamic:

Partisan identities are more tribal and emotionally charged than ever.

Political ideology often aligns more with cultural values (race, religion, gender) than economic policy.

🧭 Final Thoughts: Why Understanding These Shifts Matters

Political parties are not static—they are dynamic institutions that evolve based on the values, pressures, and movements of their time. Knowing this history helps us:

Understand how strange bedfellows (e.g., Southern segregationists in the Democratic Party) came to be
Recognize that today’s party platforms aren’t eternal truths

Think more critically about how and why policy priorities shift

If you vote today, you’re not voting in the same party structures that existed in 1860, 1930, or even 1990. By learning this history, we gain insight into not just where we are—but where we might be headed.

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Benjamin Franklin and Muhammad Personalities

Introduction

In this article, I’m going to look at two famous people and review specific personality traits that these two figures tend to fit into. The first person I am going to look at is Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 – April 17, 1790), and the second person will be the founder of the religion known as Islam, Muhammad (April 26, 570 – June 8th, 632). While these two people come from different backgrounds at different times, they both still hold a strong influence in the world today.

Personality Traits and Motives

First, I will define the personality traits and needs that I’m measuring. I will be basing this paper on the big-5 personality traits which include extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and Open to Experience/Intellect. While there is conflict regarding the meaning of what exactly defines these personality traits, I will go with these traits, which include the following: “Extraversion – bold, forceful, self-confident, talkative, spontaneous, gregarious, outspoken, energetic, and happy. Neuroticism – Nervous, anxious, excitable, high-strung, concerned, fearful, and tense. Agreeableness – friendly, warm, kind, polite, good-natured, and considerate. Conscientiousness – cautious, serious, responsible, thorough, hardworking, neat, persevering, and planful. Intellect – imaginative, intellectual, polished, curious, creative, knowledgeable, perceptive, verbal, and original” (Carver and Scheier 2008).

I will also look at the needs and motives of these individuals which include the need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation, and need for intimacy. As defined by the text: The need for achievement – the desire to do things well, to feel pleasure in overcoming obstacles. There is the need for power – the motive to have an impact on others, to have prestige, to feel strong compared to others. The need for affiliation – the motive to spend time with others and form friendly social ties. The need for intimacy – the desire to experience warm, close, and communicative exchanges with another person, to feel close to another person” (Carver and Scheier 2008).

Benjamin Franklin

Brief Overview

First, I will start with Benjamin Franklin. Benjamin Franklin was a very accomplished man. He was a political theorist, scientist, musician, inventor (lightning rod, bifocals, etc.), and author, among other things. He even began the first fire department in Pennsylvania and the first lending library in America. Franklin strongly believed in hard work, education, self-governing institutions, and community spirit. He was opposed to such things as political and religious authoritarianism.

He had many accomplishments, which would include such things as helping establish the University of Pennsylvania, helped prevented the Stamp Act from taking place, having a positive effect on French/American relationships, and many other things. Toward the end of his life, he became a prominent abolitionist, which he demonstrated by freeing his own slaves.

Extroversion

I would consider Franklin to rank very high on extroversion. He was involved in and created many groups throughout his life, keeping him in contact with several people. Franklin created the Union Fire Company, was appointed president of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, organized the Pennsylvania Militia, and even became the governor of Pennsylvania. He was socially active in that he led the anti-proprietary party against the Penn family and publicly opposed the 1765 Stamp Act. A person who is introverted would have a very difficult time doing the things that Franklin did.

Neuroticism

It is hard to measure Benjamin Franklin’s degree of neuroticism just by reading of what he accomplished. I will make an attempt to show that he probably would have scored low in the area of neuroticism by looking and some of his thirteen virtues. One said “Order. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time” (Franklin). This shows that Franklin strived to keep order in his life. One with more order usually has less stress and, therefore, a lower rate of neuroticism. This would probably also increase his score when it came to conscientiousness. Another one is “Tranquility. Be not disturbed by trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable” (Franklin). This statement shows that Franklin sought to find peace within rather than be bothered by things happening around him. While it is difficult to tell how well he did at this, it does show that he strived for inner peace. Inner peace would lower him on the neuroticism scale.

Agreeableness

Regarding agreeableness, it is hard to say where he would fall. It would be closer to the middle, perhaps toward the higher end. On the agreeableness side of things, Franklin promoted religious tolerance, indicating that he wasn’t interested in arguing regarding spiritual matters. However, someone who supports religious tolerance may be more opt to argue with someone who demonstrates intolerance. It did appear that Franklin’s ultimate goal was peace. I would think that to have as significant of an influence as he had, he would need a degree of agreeableness. In fact, one of his virtues was “silence,” which he defined as “Speak not but of what might benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation” (Franklin), which also is evidence that he was fairly agreeable. However, he would also have to have a degree of disagreeableness. He was openly opposed to authoritarian government and religion, meaning he would probably not agree with certain political and religious leaders.

Conscientiousness

When it comes to conscientiousness, I would say that Franklin would also score high on this. Since this trait is connected to the will to achieve, it seems that he had a strong will to succeed. An example being that he accomplished a lot of what is mentioned above. He valued hard work, which is a trait of conscientiousness, and seemed to be a very responsible man.

Openness to Experience/Intellect

I believe that Benjamin Franklin would have scored high on the openness to experience/intellect trait. Being an inventor would require Franklin to be quite creative and imaginative. For instance, he came up with the lightning rod by believing that conductors with sharp points tended to be more capable than smooth points of discharging electricity silently. Therefore, he found a way to draw electricity out of the sky more safely. More evidence that he was strong on this trait is that he played and composed music. To be involved in such things as being the president of the American Philosophical Society he would probably would have had to demonstrate a high degree of intellect.

Needs And Motives

Regarding needs, I would say that Franklin had a high need for achievement. He continually strived to succeed at what he did, whether it was inventing things, putting together music, or having political influence. I would not say that he had a need for power since he was opposed to authoritarian style authority and was more in favor of individual freedom. However, the need for power can also be defined as having an influence on others. Franklin seemed to have the need to have a positive influence on others as demonstrated by his accomplishments such as becoming a governor.

Being a social person, as mentioned earlier, I believe he had a high need for affiliation. His involvement in several organizations demonstrates this. His need for intimacy is questionable. At age 17, Franklin asked Deborah Read to marry him. However, Deborah was too afraid of the sea to go with Franklin on his trips to Europe, and she even passed away when he was on one of his extended trips. It seems that his need to achieve was more significant than his need for intimacy, but it did seem like he needed intimacy to a degree. From what I understand, his need for affiliation would have been more prevalent than his need for intimacy.

Muhammad

Brief Overview

The second person I’m going to take a look at is Muhammad who is well known for having founded the world’s second largest religion: Islam. Not only is he known by Muslims as the last prophet but also by historians as a philosopher, merchant, and military leader, among other things. Not happy with his life, he retreated into a cave for meditation and reflection. According to Islam belief, when he was 40, he received a revelation from a god named Allah and proclaimed that he was a prophet of this god and that Allah is the one true god. He gained followers, and even though he was met with hostility, he was able to unite the tribes around him and convert most of the people to his religion. He brought us the Islamic holy book, the Quran, and even today, Muslims view his name with reverence. There is much controversy about the true history of Muhammad, so I will analyze what is often said about him.

Muhammad felt a strong need to warn those who rejected Allah’s revelation but also to commended those who turned from “evil.” He emphasized ideas such as the forgiveness of sins, opposed cheating people of wealth, and also opposed the killing of newborn girls. According to historians, he brought moral reform to the area, which improved the rights of slaves, women, and children. He issued a tax called zakat, which benefited the poor, in which he demanded that those who allied with him would implement it.

Even when people of power in Mecca insisted that Muhammad would stop preaching his religion, he continued on. He was also a military leader, as seen in his conquest of Mecca, which included many battles. While a military leader, he was also merciful as when he finally took control of Mecca. He did so with as few casualties as possible and announced that those he fought against be forgiven for past sins, except for a few who continued to mock him.

Extroversion

I believe that Muhammad would score high on the personality trait of extroversion. He was bold and expressed his religious beliefs to those around him. Muhammad was able to gain a following that was loyal to him and make pacts between various tribes. He was forceful with his religious beliefs, not giving in to those around him. However, he may have had a degree of introversion, especially in his earlier years when he would withdraw to his cave for several weeks out of the year.

Neuroticism

Just as with Benjamin Franklin, it is hard to tell to what degree Muhammad demonstrated neuroticism. He did not seem like a fearful man, as he didn’t give in to threats to stop spreading his religion. He wasn’t overcome with anxiety or nervousness during confrontations, so it would appear that he might have scored low in this area.

Agreeableness

Unlike Franklin, I believe Muhammad would have scored low in the area of agreeableness. He believed that his god was the only true god and would preach this regardless of who disagreed with him. Muhammad was adamant that others needed to succumb to his belief structure, or Allah would severely punish him. He seemed to be rather intolerant in regard to religion, which differed greatly from Franklin, who promoted religious tolerance. However, he did manage to gain a following, which would have been difficult if one had never been agreeable at all. I do believe he still may have had traces of agreeableness.

Conscientiousness

I believe that Muhammad would have a high degree of conscientiousness. In order to be both a religious and military leader, one has to have a high degree of responsibility and organization. He did well in battle, showing that he was more cautious than rash and knew how to plan things out.

Openness to Experience/Intellect

I also believe he would have been high on the openness to experience/intellect scale. To create a religion that would become one of the prominent world forces almost 1500 years later would take a great deal of creativity and intellect. He had to be smart in battle strategy and come up with plans to defeat his enemies.

Needs and Motives

When it comes to needs and motives, I would say that Mohammed had a high need for achievement, as he demonstrated by preaching his religion regardless of what others thought and fought against those who opposed him. I would put him in the mid-range for his need for power. While it did seem that he was in a constant power struggle, he also ended up showing mercy to those whom he defeated. He gave to the poor, and in his marriages, he allowed his wives and concubines to express their opinions and even argue with him.

His need for affiliation would have been fairly high since he surrounded himself with those who followed him and kept them close by. This need seemed to get stronger later in his life has he made his conquests. His need for intimacy, I would say, would be about in the middle range. He married a woman at 25, and it was reported to be a happy marriage that lasted for 25 years. However, overall, he was said to have about 13 wives or concubines he married for political or humanitarian reasons; however, these accounts vary. I believe that during his earlier life, he had a higher need for intimacy since he maintained a happy marriage for 25 years. However when he really became more involved in the spread of his religion and conquest, his need for intimacy was not as high.

Conclusion

Upon researching both of these men, I found myself rather surprised at how many similarities there are between the two of them. At first, I thought they would have very different personalities. The only difference I really saw was that Benjamin Franklin was higher on the personality trait of agreeableness. Also Muhammad seemed to have a higher need for power. In some ways, those who have a great influence on society may have similar personality traits overall, even if they have different ways of going about things.

References

The description of Benjamin Franklin was taken from the following site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin

The description of Mohammad was taken from the following site:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2008). Perspectives on Personality (6th edition). New York: Pearson. Chapters 4 & 5

Franklin, Benjamin: The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin pg 38.

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The Iran-Contra Affair and the Hidden U.S. Agendas – Power, Secrecy, and the Limits of Democracy

Introduction

The Iran–Contra affair remains one of the most revealing political scandals in modern American history. It exposed something uncomfortable: that even in a democratic system, major foreign policy decisions can happen behind the public’s back—and sometimes in direct violation of the law.

At its core, the affair wasn’t just about illegal arms deals. It was about competing agendas inside the U.S. government, the tension between Congress and the presidency, and a deeper question:

How far will a government go in the name of national interest?

What Actually Happened?

During the 1980s, under Ronald Reagan, the United States became involved in a secret operation linking two completely different global conflicts:

The Middle East (Iran and hostage crises)
Central America (Nicaragua’s civil war)

Here’s the simplified version:

1. Secret Arms Sales to Iran

Despite publicly condemning Iran and enforcing an arms embargo, U.S. officials secretly sold weapons to the country.

Why? Officially:

To secure the release of American hostages held in Lebanon
To potentially open diplomatic relations with Iran

2. Funding the Contras (Illegally)

The profits from those arms sales were then diverted to support the Contras, a rebel group fighting Nicaragua’s leftist government.

The problem?

Congress had explicitly banned funding these rebels through the Boland Amendments.

So the administration:

Created a covert network (“the Enterprise”)
Used off-the-books money
Avoided congressional oversight

The “Hidden Agenda” Question

Let’s be clear: “hidden agenda” can mean two things—

Documented covert policy goals
Speculative conspiracy theories

The Iran-Contra Affair gives us plenty of the first—no need to stretch into the second.

1. Circumventing Congress

One of the clearest hidden agendas was this:

The executive branch wanted to continue a policy that Congress had already rejected.

Instead of accepting that limitation, officials:

Found alternative funding channels
Reinterpreted legal boundaries
Operated in secrecy

This wasn’t accidental—it was deliberate.

2. Fighting Communism at Any Cost

The Cold War context matters.

The Reagan administration viewed Nicaragua’s government as a Soviet-aligned threat. Supporting the Contras wasn’t just regional policy—it was part of a global anti-communist strategy.

Hidden agenda here:

Maintain influence in Latin America
Prevent another “Cuba-like” situation

Even if it meant:

Breaking domestic law
Supporting controversial rebel groups

3. Quietly Engaging an Enemy

Publicly, Iran was labeled a sponsor of terrorism. Privately, the U.S. was negotiating with it.

Why?

Some officials believed engagement could shift Iran politically. Others saw it as a short-term tactical move for hostages. There were even hopes of long-term influence in the region. That contradiction—enemy in public, partner in secret—is a classic example of realpolitik.

4. The Role of Secrecy and the “National Security State”

This is where things get uncomfortable.

The operation wasn’t just hidden—it was actively concealed:

Documents were destroyed
Officials misled Congress
Testimony included false statements

This raises a deeper issue:

Was Iran-Contra an anomaly… or a glimpse into how power actually operates?

Some historians argue it reflects a broader pattern:

Intelligence agencies operating with limited oversight
National security used to justify secrecy
Laws treated as obstacles rather than limits

The Fallout

Once exposed in 1986, the scandal triggered:

Congressional hearings
Criminal indictments
A major political crisis

But here’s the part that still frustrates people:

Several officials were convicted—but many convictions were overturned Others were later pardoned. No top-level leadership faced lasting consequences. That leads to a hard question:

If no one at the top is held accountable, what actually changes?

What This Reveals About U.S. Power

The Iran-Contra Affair highlights three uncomfortable truths:

1. Legal Boundaries Can Be Flexible in Practice
Even when Congress says “no,” determined officials can find ways around it.

2. Foreign Policy Often Operates in the Shadows

Public statements and private actions don’t always match.

3. Accountability Is Inconsistent

Lower-level figures often take the fall, while higher-level decision-makers remain insulated.

Final Thoughts

If you’re looking for a dramatic conspiracy, Iran-Contra might disappoint.
But if you’re looking for something more unsettling—a real, documented example of hidden agendas in action—this is it.

No aliens. No secret cabals.

Just:

Power
Ideology
And a willingness to bend the rules when the stakes feel high enough

And honestly? That’s more important to understand than any conspiracy theory.

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The Real Story Behind the Crusades

Crusades

Understanding a Conflict Far More Complicated Than “Good vs. Evil”

Introduction

When most people think of the Crusades, they picture medieval knights marching to the Holy Land to fight Muslims, framed as a clash of civilizations: Christianity vs. Islam, East vs. West, “heroes” vs. “villains.”
But like most dramatic historical events, the truth is neither simple nor clean.

The Crusades were not one event. They were a series of military campaigns spanning nearly two centuries (1095–1291), driven by religion, yes—but also politics, economics, power struggles, propaganda, population pressure, and personal ambition.

So, what actually happened?

Let’s peel back the myth and look at what really drove the Crusades, who participated, and why the legacy of these conflicts still echoes today.

Why the Crusades Began: The Context Most People Don’t Know

The Crusades didn’t come out of nowhere. The idea that Christians simply woke up one day and said “Let’s conquer the Middle East” is historically inaccurate.

1. The Seljuk Turk Expansion

By the late 11th century, a new power—the Seljuk Turks—had taken control of large parts of the Islamic world, weakened the older Islamic Caliphates, and seized Jerusalem. More importantly, they began pushing into the Byzantine Empire.
T

he Byzantine emperor asked the Pope for military assistance.

This moment is key: The Crusades began as a response to a call for help from Eastern Christians.

2. The Papacy Saw an Opportunity

Pope Urban II saw the request as a chance to:

Unify Western and Eastern Christianity (which had split in the East-West Schism of 1054)

Increase the Church’s political power

Redirect violent European knights outward instead of letting them fight each other
Medieval Europe was a violent place. Knights were basically heavily armed warlords. Sending them east served multiple purposes.

3. Religious Fervor and Propaganda

Urban II promised something powerful:

Fight in the Crusade, and your sins will be forgiven.
This was not just about land.
This was about salvation.
For a deeply religious society, this was irresistible.

The First Crusade: Brutal, Successful, and Devastating

The First Crusade (1096–1099) was surprisingly successful. Crusaders captured Jerusalem, establishing Christian-controlled Crusader States.

But it came with horrific violence.

When Jerusalem fell, the Crusaders slaughtered many of the city’s Muslim and Jewish inhabitants.

Medieval chroniclers—both Christian and Muslim—record rivers of blood. The brutality shocked even the era’s standards.

This wasn’t a “holy war” in any noble sense. It was piety and brutality tied together.

Muslim Response: A Slow but Powerful Unification

At first, the Muslim world was fractured. Various empires, dynasties, and factions were fighting each other more than the Crusaders. But over time, charismatic leaders arose:

Zengi
Nur ad-Din
Saladin

Saladin, in particular, became the Muslim world’s unifying figure. When he recaptured Jerusalem in 1187, he did so with far less bloodshed than the Crusaders had shown a century earlier. His restraint is one reason he remains admired across cultures.

Later Crusades: Decline, Corruption, and Misguided Ambition

The Second and Third Crusades

Europe responded by launching more Crusades, but these had mixed results. The Third Crusade brought Richard the Lionheart and Saladin into legendary rivalry—one often romanticized into chivalric myth.

The Fourth Crusade: A Disaster of Embarrassing Proportions

Instead of fighting Muslims, Crusaders attacked the Christian city of Constantinople in 1204.
They pillaged, burned libraries, shattered wealth, and permanently weakened the Byzantine Empire.

The Crusaders essentially destroyed the very Christians they originally came to help.

This single event arguably paved the way for the eventual Ottoman conquest of Constantinople centuries later.

Myths and Misconceptions About the Crusades

Myth #1: “The Crusades were unprovoked attacks on peaceful Muslims.”
No. The Crusades were partly a response to the Islamic Turk expansion into Byzantine territory and Jerusalem. But that doesn’t justify the atrocities committed.

Myth #2: “The Crusades were purely religious.”
Religion was the banner.
Power, land, trade routes, prestige, and political advantage were the engine.

Myth #3: “This conflict defines Christian-Muslim relations.”
The Crusades are frequently invoked in modern political rhetoric—but medieval people did not view them as eternal civilizational warfare. Muslims and Christians continued to trade, share scholarship, and influence one another culturally long after.

The Lasting Legacy: Why the Crusades Still Matter

The Crusades left deep scars and enduring myths.

For the West: They were romanticized as tales of heroic knights and divine mission.

For the Muslim world: They became symbols of foreign aggression and cultural memory of invasion.

And For historians: They’re a case study in how religion gets used to justify political goals.
Today, the language of the Crusades is still used in propaganda on both sides of modern conflicts.

Understanding the real history helps prevent the past from being twisted into fuel for present hate.

Conclusion

The Crusades were not a clean story of righteousness versus wickedness.

They were messy, human, and driven by agendas as familiar today as they were a thousand years ago:

Fear
Power
Identity
Faith
Political ambition

To understand the Crusades is to understand how easily ideals can be weaponized, how propaganda shapes belief, and how deeply history can echo into the present.

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