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The Psychology of Motivation

Why We Struggle with Long-Term Goals

We’ve all been there—energized at the start of a new goal, whether it’s writing a book, getting in shape, learning a language, or starting a new business. But then the spark fades. Days or weeks pass, and we find ourselves distracted, discouraged, or completely off track. Why is it so hard to stay motivated, especially with long-term goals?

I personally struggle with ADHD which I believe makes it more difficult to accomplish both short-term and long-term goals. I have to force myself to do a routine where I work at bits and pieces of things that I want to get done.

Understanding the psychology behind motivation can help us design strategies that not only get us started but also keep us going when things get tough. Let’s explore the key psychological principles behind motivation and why long-term goals are uniquely challenging.

1. The Dopamine Trap: Our Brain Loves Instant Rewards

The brain is wired to respond to immediate gratification. When we check off a to-do list item or scroll through social media, our brain releases dopamine—a neurotransmitter that reinforces reward-seeking behavior.

Long-term goals? They often lack that instant reward. Instead, they promise results weeks, months, or even years down the line. This makes it harder for our brain to stay engaged. Without frequent “wins,” motivation wanes.

Tip: Break big goals into smaller milestones with rewards at each step. Celebrate micro-successes to keep dopamine flowing.

2. Temporal Discounting: Valuing Now Over Later

Psychologists call it “temporal discounting”—our tendency to prefer smaller rewards now over larger rewards later. It’s why eating a donut now seems more appealing than having a healthier body months from now.

This is not just poor planning; it’s how the human brain evolved. In our early environment, immediate survival mattered more than long-term thinking.

Tip: Make the future feel more immediate. Visualization techniques, journaling your “future self,” or even apps that age your face to show the “you” a year from now can help bridge that psychological gap.

3. Ego Depletion and Willpower Fatigue

Motivation isn’t infinite. According to the ego depletion theory, willpower is a limited resource. Making repeated decisions, resisting temptations, and dealing with stress all drain our mental energy.
By the time we get to the gym or sit down to write at night, our willpower might already be spent. Sometimes when we are dieting, we will see a food that we shouldn’t eat and will crave it like crazy. I have to constantly remind myself that I will feel and look better if I stick to a diet and exercise routine even though both are hard to do.

Tip: Automate what you can. Build habits into routines. Reduce decision fatigue by prepping meals, setting workout clothes out ahead of time, or writing at the same time daily.

4. The Expectancy-Value Theory

According to psychologist Edward Tolman, we are motivated to act if two conditions are met:
We expect that our efforts will lead to a result.

We value the outcome.

Long-term goals fail when either expectation or value is low. If you don’t believe you can lose weight or write that novel, or if the outcome isn’t meaningful to you anymore, motivation disappears.

Tip: Reevaluate the “why” behind your goals. Is it your goal or someone else’s? Strengthen your belief in your abilities with self-affirmation and evidence from past successes. One behavior I have wanted to change is drinking alcohol. I have found many reasons why quitting would be greatly beneficial. Sometimes you have to look to the benefits of your goals.

5. Lack of Immediate Feedback

Immediate feedback helps us course-correct. With long-term goals, it’s hard to know if you’re making progress in the early stages. This uncertainty can kill motivation.

Tip: Create your own feedback loops. Track your daily actions in a journal or app. Even seeing a habit tracker fill up gives your brain a reward it can respond to.

6. Fear of Failure or Success

Believe it or not, both fear of failure and fear of success can sabotage our motivation.

Fear of failure might lead to procrastination as a defense mechanism. “If I don’t try, I can’t fail.” I worry about this while I learn web design. I’m very afraid that I will fail and it will be a waste of time. I try to give myself hope in believing that there are many positions for web designers out there.
Fear of success involves worry about change, responsibility, or expectations. “What if I lose weight and still feel empty?” I sometimes struggle with this. If I am successful at something will people expect more of me? Will I end up failing them in the long run?

Tip: Address the underlying fears. Talk with a therapist or journal about what success and failure mean to you. Often, confronting the fear reduces its power.

7. Identity and Self-Concept

We are more likely to act in ways that align with our identity. If your self-concept includes being a healthy person, you’ll naturally make healthy choices. But if you see yourself as someone who “always gives up,” that identity becomes self-fulfilling.

Tip: Focus on becoming, not achieving. Instead of saying, “I want to run a marathon,” say, “I’m becoming a runner.” Identity-based goals are more sustainable than outcome-based goals.

8. Overwhelm and Cognitive Load

Big goals often come with big to-do lists. That creates mental clutter, which can lead to paralysis by analysis. When we feel overwhelmed, we freeze instead of act. I have noticed when I take on too many things, I end up not getting anything done because I can’t have my attention so divided.

Tip: Reduce cognitive load. Use the 2-Minute Rule: if it takes under 2 minutes, do it immediately. Also, try limiting goals to one or two big ones at a time.

9. Lack of Social Accountability

Motivation thrives with social support. When no one knows about your goal, it’s easier to quit without consequences. Support, encouragement, and even a little pressure can help you follow through.
Tip: Share your goals with someone you trust. Join a support group or an online community with similar goals. External accountability boosts internal motivation.

10. Motivation Is a Cycle, Not a Constant

We often expect motivation to be constant. But it’s more like a wave—it rises and falls. If you rely only on high motivation, you’ll falter when it dips.

Tip: Build habits for the lows. Use momentum from your motivated days to create systems and routines that carry you through the slumps.

Final Thoughts: Motivation is More Strategy Than Magic

Struggling with long-term goals isn’t a character flaw—it’s how the human mind operates. But with the right understanding and tools, you can outsmart your brain’s default settings. By using techniques rooted in psychology, you can create sustainable motivation, one habit and one step at a time.

Key Takeaways:

Break long goals into short milestones.
Use rewards and feedback loops.
Reconnect with your “why.”
Manage willpower and automate tasks.
Build your identity around your goal.

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Further Research

Articles for Further Reading

“The Science of Motivation” – Psychology Today

A foundational overview of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation with links to more specific topics like goal-setting and procrastination.
“Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Motivation” – Verywell Mind

Breaks down types of motivation and common obstacles with accessible language and examples.
“The Role of Dopamine in Motivation and Reward” – National Institutes of Health
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4826769/
A scientific study detailing how dopamine circuits drive our goal-directed behavior.

▶️ YouTube Videos for Further Learning

Kurzgesagt – “The Science of Motivation”
Dr. Tracey Marks – “Why You Procrastinate and How to Stop”
Thomas Frank – “How to Set Goals That You’ll Actually Achieve”

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The Nature of Happiness

The Nature of Happiness: Hedonism vs. Eudaimonia

Hedonism vs. Eudaimonia

Introduction

Hedonism vs. Eudaimonia

Happiness… It’s the ultimate goal for many, but what does it truly mean to be happy? Philosophers have debated the nature of happiness for centuries, focusing on two primary concepts: hedonism and eudaimonia. Hedonism suggests that happiness lies in pleasure and avoiding pain, while eudaimonia emphasizes a life of virtue, personal growth, and purpose. This article explores the key arguments for both philosophies, how they differ, and what they reveal about the search for a meaningful life.

Section 1: Understanding Hedonism: Happiness as Pleasure

What is Hedonism?

Hedonism is the philosophical view that pleasure or the absence of pain is the highest good. In this sense, happiness equals pleasure, where the goal of life is to maximize enjoyment and minimize suffering. Hedonists argue that a life filled with pleasurable experiences, sensory enjoyment, and comfort is one worth pursuing. In other words, happiness, according to hedonism, is all about creating a lifestyle that feels good, regardless of its deeper meaning.

Types of Hedonism

Different types of hedonism shape this philosophy:

Psychological Hedonism – This view suggests that human beings are wired to seek pleasure and avoid pain naturally. It argues that every action we take, whether consciously or subconsciously, is aimed at achieving pleasure.

Ethical Hedonism – Ethical hedonism takes a moral stance, suggesting that people should act in ways that bring them the most pleasure. Ancient philosopher Epicurus is often cited as a proponent, but his version of hedonism wasn’t purely about indulgence; rather, it advocated for simple pleasures and the avoidance of pain through wisdom and friendship.

The Argument for Hedonism

Supporters of hedonism argue that pleasure is inherently good and desirable. Since life is full of challenges and pain, why not focus on what brings us joy and contentment? Hedonism emphasizes living in the moment and appreciating life’s joys, from a delicious meal to a satisfying career.

Moreover, hedonism appeals because it’s universal. People from all cultures, backgrounds, and ages can relate to the experience of pleasure and the desire to avoid suffering. Proponents argue that by seeking pleasure, we make life more fulfilling and add value to our day-to-day existence.

Section 2: Understanding Eudaimonia: Happiness as Flourishing

What is Eudaimonia?

Eudaimonia is a concept rooted in Aristotle’s philosophy, often translated as “flourishing” or “living well.” Unlike hedonism, eudaimonia isn’t just about fleeting pleasure. Instead, it focuses on personal development, virtue, and living in alignment with one’s values. Aristotle argued that eudaimonia is achieved not through momentary pleasures but by cultivating virtues such as courage, wisdom, and integrity over a lifetime.

Eudaimonia vs. Hedonism: The Long-Term Perspective

Where hedonism may provide quick rewards, eudaimonia is a lifelong journey. It involves hard work, self-reflection, and commitment to a purpose. This philosophy emphasizes achieving one’s potential and making meaningful contributions to society, which Aristotle believed would result in a lasting sense of fulfillment.

The Argument for Eudaimonia

Advocates of eudaimonia argue that true happiness isn’t just a matter of feeling good but rather of being good and doing good. By focusing on virtue and purpose, we can build a life that feels valuable and meaningful, even when challenges arise. Eudaimonia is about resilience and the pursuit of excellence, which leads to a deeper, more enduring form of happiness.

Philosophers like Aristotle suggest that pleasure, as understood in hedonism, is fleeting and doesn’t lead to true fulfillment. Eudaimonia, on the other hand, requires cultivating character and purpose, resulting in a life that feels satisfying and rewarding in the long run.

Section 3: Comparing Hedonism and Eudaimonia: The Pleasure vs. Purpose Debate

Hedonism and eudaimonia both offer different pathways to happiness, but which one leads to a more fulfilling life? Here’s a breakdown of how these philosophies compare:

Aspect

Hedonism

Goal: Maximize pleasure and minimize pain

Approach: Seek sensory enjoyment, comfort, and joy…

Short-term vs. Long-term: Primarily short-term, focused on immediate satisfaction

View on Challenges: Avoid suffering and pain

Philosophical Basis: Epicurean philosophy

Eudaimonia

Goal: Achieve personal growth and live virtuously

Approach: Cultivate virtues, purpose, and self-fulfillment

Short-term vs. Long-term – Long-term, focused on enduring fulfillment

View on Challenges: Embrace challenges as part of growth

Philosophical Basis: Aristotelian philosophy

Key Differences

The primary difference between hedonism and eudaimonia lies in their approach to happiness. Hedonism seeks to create a life that feels good, whereas eudaimonia emphasizes building a good life. Hedonism values enjoyment and comfort, while eudaimonia prioritizes integrity, wisdom, and the pursuit of excellence

Happiness and the Role of Pain

Hedonists typically view pain as an obstacle to happiness, something to avoid. Eudaimonists, however, argue that pain and challenges can be essential for personal growth. For example, overcoming a difficult experience can build resilience and bring a sense of accomplishment, leading to a more profound happiness than mere pleasure can offer.

Section 4: Is One Approach Better Than the Other?

The question of whether hedonism or eudaimonia is the better path to happiness depends largely on personal values and life goals. For some, a life of pleasure and enjoyment fulfills their needs, while others find that only through personal growth and self-discovery can they experience true satisfaction.

Critiques of Hedonism

Critics of hedonism argue that the pursuit of pleasure alone can be shallow and unsustainable. When happiness depends solely on external factors, it can quickly fade. For example, the pleasure from a new purchase or a fun experience is often temporary, leading to the so-called “hedonic treadmill,” where people constantly seek new pleasures to maintain happiness.

Critiques of Eudaimonia

While eudaimonia offers a deeper sense of fulfillment, critics argue that it can be too demanding. Not everyone wants to spend their life cultivating virtues or pursuing a grand purpose. For those who prefer a simpler, more hedonistic approach, the focus on long-term growth may feel overly restrictive or even exhausting.

Section 5: Finding Balance Between Hedonism and Eudaimonia

For many people, the ideal path to happiness lies in balancing elements of both hedonism and eudaimonia. After all, life is a blend of pleasure, purpose, and growth, which can complement rather than contradict each other. Here are some tips for finding a balance:

Savor Pleasures Mindfully

Incorporate small pleasures into daily life, but savor them mindfully rather than pursuing pleasure for its own sake. This hedonistic approach, tempered with mindfulness, allows for enjoyment without relying solely on external sources for happiness.

Cultivate Meaningful Goals

Like eudaimonia, focus on long-term goals that contribute to personal growth. These might include learning new skills, building relationships, or contributing to causes that matter to you.

Embrace Challenges

Accept that life’s difficulties can lead to growth. By facing challenges and learning from them, you cultivate resilience and a deeper appreciation for both the good and the difficult times.

Prioritize Well-being

Find ways to balance enjoyment and purpose. Ensure that your lifestyle aligns with your values and aspirations, allowing you to experience both immediate pleasures and lasting fulfillment.

Conclusion: A Personal Path to Happiness

Ultimately, the journey toward happiness is unique for each individual. Hedonism and eudaimonia offer valuable perspectives, but happiness might be best understood as a personal journey where one discovers meaning and joy in their own way. Whether you lean toward sensory pleasures or strive for a life of virtue, both approaches remind us that happiness is multifaceted and worth exploring.

When it comes to hedonism vs. eudaimonia, I tend to side with the eudaimonia point of view about 80% of the time and the Hedonism point of view about 20% of the time. It is essential to find meaning in your life, whatever that might be. Some find it through such things as religion and philosophy, while others are perfectly content without either. I do believe there are times to seek pleasure, but sometimes, helping someone in need is a pleasure within itself.

In the end, the question isn’t just about choosing between pleasure and purpose but about creating a balanced, fulfilling life that feels both good in the moment and meaningful over time.

Resources:

Books

“Nicomachean Ethics” by Aristotle – This foundational text introduces the concept of eudaimonia and Aristotle’s philosophy of living a virtuous life for true happiness.

“The Art of Happiness” by Epicurus – A translation and commentary on Epicurus’s works, presenting his approach to ethical hedonism and the pursuit of pleasure through simplicity.

“The Happiness Hypothesis” by Jonathan Haidt – Haidt explores various philosophical approaches to happiness, including hedonism and eudaimonia, through psychological and philosophical insights.

“Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience” by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi – Although not directly about hedonism or eudaimonia, Csikszentmihalyi’s work on “flow” aligns with eudaimonic concepts of achieving fulfillment through meaningful engagement.

Academic Articles

Kraut, R. “Aristotle on the Human Good,” Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy, 1989** – This article explores Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia and its practical application, offering insight into ancient and contemporary debates.

“Hedonism, Eudaimonism, and Happiness” in The Routledge Companion to Ethics by John Cottingham (Chapter 4) – An analysis of different happiness theories, contrasting hedonism and eudaimonia, and discussing how these perspectives apply to modern life.

Haybron, D. “Happiness,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011 – A thorough review of happiness concepts, including hedonism and eudaimonia, from the historical and philosophical perspectives.

Web Resources and Online Journals

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – The entries on “Hedonism” and “Eudaimonia” provide accessible overviews of both concepts, along with references to key philosophical debates and figures.

Hedonism entry on Stanford

Eudaimonia entry on Stanford

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP) – This resource offers articles on both hedonism and virtue ethics, with thorough explorations of different perspectives and thinkers.

YouTube Channels

Wireless Philosophy (Wi-Phi) – Their video series covers hedonism, Aristotle, and concepts of happiness in digestible formats.

Academy of Ideas – Video essays on philosophy topics, including the philosophy of happiness, Aristotle, and Epicurus.

Podcast Episodes

The Partially Examined Life – Episodes on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and Epicurean philosophy.

Philosophize This! – Episodes on happiness and human nature, including discussions on hedonism and eudaimonia.

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Benjamin Franklin and Muhammad Personalities

Introduction

In this article, I’m going to look at two famous people and review specific personality traits that these two figures tend to fit into. The first person I am going to look at is Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 – April 17, 1790), and the second person will be the founder of the religion known as Islam, Muhammad (April 26, 570 – June 8th, 632). While these two people come from different backgrounds at different times, they both still hold a strong influence in the world today.

Personality Traits and Motives

First, I will define the personality traits and needs that I’m measuring. I will be basing this paper on the big-5 personality traits which include extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and Open to Experience/Intellect. While there is conflict regarding the meaning of what exactly defines these personality traits, I will go with these traits, which include the following: “Extraversion – bold, forceful, self-confident, talkative, spontaneous, gregarious, outspoken, energetic, and happy. Neuroticism – Nervous, anxious, excitable, high-strung, concerned, fearful, and tense. Agreeableness – friendly, warm, kind, polite, good-natured, and considerate. Conscientiousness – cautious, serious, responsible, thorough, hardworking, neat, persevering, and planful. Intellect – imaginative, intellectual, polished, curious, creative, knowledgeable, perceptive, verbal, and original” (Carver and Scheier 2008).

I will also look at the needs and motives of these individuals which include the need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation, and need for intimacy. As defined by the text: The need for achievement – the desire to do things well, to feel pleasure in overcoming obstacles. There is the need for power – the motive to have an impact on others, to have prestige, to feel strong compared to others. The need for affiliation – the motive to spend time with others and form friendly social ties. The need for intimacy – the desire to experience warm, close, and communicative exchanges with another person, to feel close to another person” (Carver and Scheier 2008).

Benjamin Franklin

Brief Overview

First, I will start with Benjamin Franklin. Benjamin Franklin was a very accomplished man. He was a political theorist, scientist, musician, inventor (lightning rod, bifocals, etc.), and author, among other things. He even began the first fire department in Pennsylvania and the first lending library in America. Franklin strongly believed in hard work, education, self-governing institutions, and community spirit. He was opposed to such things as political and religious authoritarianism.

He had many accomplishments, which would include such things as helping establish the University of Pennsylvania, helped prevented the Stamp Act from taking place, having a positive effect on French/American relationships, and many other things. Toward the end of his life, he became a prominent abolitionist, which he demonstrated by freeing his own slaves.

Extroversion

I would consider Franklin to rank very high on extroversion. He was involved in and created many groups throughout his life, keeping him in contact with several people. Franklin created the Union Fire Company, was appointed president of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, organized the Pennsylvania Militia, and even became the governor of Pennsylvania. He was socially active in that he led the anti-proprietary party against the Penn family and publicly opposed the 1765 Stamp Act. A person who is introverted would have a very difficult time doing the things that Franklin did.

Neuroticism

It is hard to measure Benjamin Franklin’s degree of neuroticism just by reading of what he accomplished. I will make an attempt to show that he probably would have scored low in the area of neuroticism by looking and some of his thirteen virtues. One said “Order. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time” (Franklin). This shows that Franklin strived to keep order in his life. One with more order usually has less stress and, therefore, a lower rate of neuroticism. This would probably also increase his score when it came to conscientiousness. Another one is “Tranquility. Be not disturbed by trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable” (Franklin). This statement shows that Franklin sought to find peace within rather than be bothered by things happening around him. While it is difficult to tell how well he did at this, it does show that he strived for inner peace. Inner peace would lower him on the neuroticism scale.

Agreeableness

Regarding agreeableness, it is hard to say where he would fall. It would be closer to the middle, perhaps toward the higher end. On the agreeableness side of things, Franklin promoted religious tolerance, indicating that he wasn’t interested in arguing regarding spiritual matters. However, someone who supports religious tolerance may be more opt to argue with someone who demonstrates intolerance. It did appear that Franklin’s ultimate goal was peace. I would think that to have as significant of an influence as he had, he would need a degree of agreeableness. In fact, one of his virtues was “silence,” which he defined as “Speak not but of what might benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation” (Franklin), which also is evidence that he was fairly agreeable. However, he would also have to have a degree of disagreeableness. He was openly opposed to authoritarian government and religion, meaning he would probably not agree with certain political and religious leaders.

Conscientiousness

When it comes to conscientiousness, I would say that Franklin would also score high on this. Since this trait is connected to the will to achieve, it seems that he had a strong will to succeed. An example being that he accomplished a lot of what is mentioned above. He valued hard work, which is a trait of conscientiousness, and seemed to be a very responsible man.

Openness to Experience/Intellect

I believe that Benjamin Franklin would have scored high on the openness to experience/intellect trait. Being an inventor would require Franklin to be quite creative and imaginative. For instance, he came up with the lightning rod by believing that conductors with sharp points tended to be more capable than smooth points of discharging electricity silently. Therefore, he found a way to draw electricity out of the sky more safely. More evidence that he was strong on this trait is that he played and composed music. To be involved in such things as being the president of the American Philosophical Society he would probably would have had to demonstrate a high degree of intellect.

Needs And Motives

Regarding needs, I would say that Franklin had a high need for achievement. He continually strived to succeed at what he did, whether it was inventing things, putting together music, or having political influence. I would not say that he had a need for power since he was opposed to authoritarian style authority and was more in favor of individual freedom. However, the need for power can also be defined as having an influence on others. Franklin seemed to have the need to have a positive influence on others as demonstrated by his accomplishments such as becoming a governor.

Being a social person, as mentioned earlier, I believe he had a high need for affiliation. His involvement in several organizations demonstrates this. His need for intimacy is questionable. At age 17, Franklin asked Deborah Read to marry him. However, Deborah was too afraid of the sea to go with Franklin on his trips to Europe, and she even passed away when he was on one of his extended trips. It seems that his need to achieve was more significant than his need for intimacy, but it did seem like he needed intimacy to a degree. From what I understand, his need for affiliation would have been more prevalent than his need for intimacy.

Muhammad

Brief Overview

The second person I’m going to take a look at is Muhammad who is well known for having founded the world’s second largest religion: Islam. Not only is he known by Muslims as the last prophet but also by historians as a philosopher, merchant, and military leader, among other things. Not happy with his life, he retreated into a cave for meditation and reflection. According to Islam belief, when he was 40, he received a revelation from a god named Allah and proclaimed that he was a prophet of this god and that Allah is the one true god. He gained followers, and even though he was met with hostility, he was able to unite the tribes around him and convert most of the people to his religion. He brought us the Islamic holy book, the Quran, and even today, Muslims view his name with reverence. There is much controversy about the true history of Muhammad, so I will analyze what is often said about him.

Muhammad felt a strong need to warn those who rejected Allah’s revelation but also to commended those who turned from “evil.” He emphasized ideas such as the forgiveness of sins, opposed cheating people of wealth, and also opposed the killing of newborn girls. According to historians, he brought moral reform to the area, which improved the rights of slaves, women, and children. He issued a tax called zakat, which benefited the poor, in which he demanded that those who allied with him would implement it.

Even when people of power in Mecca insisted that Muhammad would stop preaching his religion, he continued on. He was also a military leader, as seen in his conquest of Mecca, which included many battles. While a military leader, he was also merciful as when he finally took control of Mecca. He did so with as few casualties as possible and announced that those he fought against be forgiven for past sins, except for a few who continued to mock him.

Extroversion

I believe that Muhammad would score high on the personality trait of extroversion. He was bold and expressed his religious beliefs to those around him. Muhammad was able to gain a following that was loyal to him and make pacts between various tribes. He was forceful with his religious beliefs, not giving in to those around him. However, he may have had a degree of introversion, especially in his earlier years when he would withdraw to his cave for several weeks out of the year.

Neuroticism

Just as with Benjamin Franklin, it is hard to tell to what degree Muhammad demonstrated neuroticism. He did not seem like a fearful man, as he didn’t give in to threats to stop spreading his religion. He wasn’t overcome with anxiety or nervousness during confrontations, so it would appear that he might have scored low in this area.

Agreeableness

Unlike Franklin, I believe Muhammad would have scored low in the area of agreeableness. He believed that his god was the only true god and would preach this regardless of who disagreed with him. Muhammad was adamant that others needed to succumb to his belief structure, or Allah would severely punish him. He seemed to be rather intolerant in regard to religion, which differed greatly from Franklin, who promoted religious tolerance. However, he did manage to gain a following, which would have been difficult if one had never been agreeable at all. I do believe he still may have had traces of agreeableness.

Conscientiousness

I believe that Muhammad would have a high degree of conscientiousness. In order to be both a religious and military leader, one has to have a high degree of responsibility and organization. He did well in battle, showing that he was more cautious than rash and knew how to plan things out.

Openness to Experience/Intellect

I also believe he would have been high on the openness to experience/intellect scale. To create a religion that would become one of the prominent world forces almost 1500 years later would take a great deal of creativity and intellect. He had to be smart in battle strategy and come up with plans to defeat his enemies.

Needs and Motives

When it comes to needs and motives, I would say that Mohammed had a high need for achievement, as he demonstrated by preaching his religion regardless of what others thought and fought against those who opposed him. I would put him in the mid-range for his need for power. While it did seem that he was in a constant power struggle, he also ended up showing mercy to those whom he defeated. He gave to the poor, and in his marriages, he allowed his wives and concubines to express their opinions and even argue with him.

His need for affiliation would have been fairly high since he surrounded himself with those who followed him and kept them close by. This need seemed to get stronger later in his life has he made his conquests. His need for intimacy, I would say, would be about in the middle range. He married a woman at 25, and it was reported to be a happy marriage that lasted for 25 years. However, overall, he was said to have about 13 wives or concubines he married for political or humanitarian reasons; however, these accounts vary. I believe that during his earlier life, he had a higher need for intimacy since he maintained a happy marriage for 25 years. However when he really became more involved in the spread of his religion and conquest, his need for intimacy was not as high.

Conclusion

Upon researching both of these men, I found myself rather surprised at how many similarities there are between the two of them. At first, I thought they would have very different personalities. The only difference I really saw was that Benjamin Franklin was higher on the personality trait of agreeableness. Also Muhammad seemed to have a higher need for power. In some ways, those who have a great influence on society may have similar personality traits overall, even if they have different ways of going about things.

References

The description of Benjamin Franklin was taken from the following site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin

The description of Mohammad was taken from the following site:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2008). Perspectives on Personality (6th edition). New York: Pearson. Chapters 4 & 5

Franklin, Benjamin: The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin pg 38.

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